We cannot see what we are not looking for: mapping and conceptualizing linkages between multidimensional inequality and ecosystem services

Abstract: The global threats of widespread biodiversity loss and climate change impact ecosystems daily, leading to far-reaching consequences for people who benefit from these systems in various ways. Despite these challenges, little is known about the differences in how people derive benefits from nature and who will become increasingly vulnerable to future global environmental change. Previous research has assessed the impact of inequality on nature’s benefits (or ecosystem services), but these efforts have primarily relied on socio-economic inequality measures. These measures overlook potential heterogeneity within groups based on characteristics such as gender, class, and ethnicity. Therefore, a multidimensional approach to understanding inequality is needed. This systematic mapping review aims to map the literature that explores multidimensional inequality in relation to ecosystem services (ES), specifically in terms of three types of ecosystem benefits: experience, use, and money. Key findings were that political-and economic inequalities are most frequently linked to all three types of benefits, with links between political inequality and the use of ES being particularly common in the literature. In contrast, studies that analyze inequalities based on religion, disabilities, and race in relation to ES are least common. Finally, experience is the least explored benefit in relation to inequality, potentially due to the challenges of assessing intangible benefits. This review also highlights the complexities of inequalities acting at different scales and potential trade-offs between inequality categories and ecosystem benefit types. Future research recommendations include further widening the inequality lens (primarily in the cultural and social dimensions) to improve our understanding of who benefits from nature to develop more effective, sustainable, and equitable policies and mitigate future threats.