Economic dependence, gender, and the division of invisible household labor: A comparison study between China and Sweden on mental load

Abstract: This study examines the association between economic dependence, gender, and invisible labor in households in China and Sweden. Survey data from 501 Chinese and 223 Swedish respondents were collected online to examine. The findings reveal that women in China bear a higher mental load compared to men, while no gender difference is observed in Sweden. Furthermore, in my sample, both men and women in China exhibit a lower mental load than their counterparts in Sweden. Specifically, a positive linear relationship is observed between the share of household income and mental load in China, while in Sweden, a U-shaped relationship is found. The results highlight the complexity of the association between economic dependence and mental load, which deviates from Becker's model (Becker, 1965). In Sweden, men with traditional gender attitudes experience higher mental load which is a novel finding. Exploratory analysis further disaggregates mental load sources into three household responsibility subcategories: household routines, child well-being, and household finance. Robustness checks, including regressions excluding potential extreme outliers, were conducted to validate the results. Overall, the results provide valuable insights into the complex interplay between economic dependence, gender, and the division of invisible household labor and highlight the importance of considering cultural and societal contexts when examining gender differences in household work and the associations with income.