Coins, glass shards and other means of payment - A comparative study of Scandinavian Charon object burials using R. Dawkins’ meme theory

Abstract: The purpose of this thesis’ topic is to investigate the evolutionary dispersal of the Charon’s fee or Obolus rite outside the Roman provinces in Northern Europe, with a specific focus on Roman Iron Age and Migration Period Scandinavia. The aim of this study is therefore to add further understanding to the spread of Roman cultural influences outside the imperial borders and what made Roman material and ideological culture so attractive to the Germanic and Scandinavian Iron Age peoples. The research questions are as follows: Is it possible to recognize regional trends or memes in burials with the Charon’s fee rite within the archaeological material of Roman Iron Age and Migration Period Scandinavia? Can a rough typology of the Obolus rite be structured through these trends? Do Scandinavian Charon’s Obols only occur in graves with rich burial goods and elaborate constructions, or do they also appear in poorer graves? This thesis investigates six case study burials from various parts of Scandinavia; Engbjerg grave 4 and Himlingøje 1949-2 from Zealand, Denmark, Högom mound 2 from Medelpad, Sweden, Kälder double burial from Gotland, Gile grave 17 from Oppland and a grave at Hol from Trøndelag, both in Norway. These burials are investigated using a comparative method with a focus on the general grave goods, burial constructions, as well as each grave’s Charon’s fee object. The thesis also uses itself of R. Dawkins’ meme theory about self-replicating socio-cultural expressions and trends, and the way they evolve through transmission. Aside from sharing a Charon’s Obol each, a noticeable randomness within the choice of materials and shapes of the Charon’s Obols could be seen. Structuring an evolutionary typology of the Charon’s Obols therefore proved impossible. The most common materials for the Charon’s Obols were precious metals, but glass Obols also occurred in the Engbjerg grave. All of these materials were considered prestigious in Roman Iron Age and Migration Period Scandinavian society, however. The focus on using these wealthy materials, as well as to intentionally shape objects to be placed in the mouth whether they looked like coins or not, points to a deeper understanding of the rite’s original meaning, which had been hybridized due to its spreading, with an emphasis on prestigious materials found in primarily elite burials. This is seen in the other artefact categories as well, such as large collections of weaponry, accumulations of imported bronze and glass vessels with origins outside of Scandinavia, as well as locally produced precious metal objects, all of which point towards a series of graves belonging to a class of elite mercenaries. The tendency to be buried next to several other individuals, some of which share very similar grave goods, points towards these tendencies being reserved for whole families. These familiar ties are especially strong in the Kälder burial, which featured two men buried side by side in the same grave, possibly being father and son. A tendency towards primarily male burials can be traced in Sweden and Norway while Denmark features more female burials. The most common body placement in the graves is a north-south direction, while the Högom burial featured an east-west positioning. Other recognizable trends include a focus on burial placements either on or next to topographical heights, like mountain ranges, ridges, or hills, as well as near valleys. Animal sacrifices can also be found in several graves.